The Battle of Thermopylae

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About

Many historians have often wondered throughout the ages, how the course of history may have altered had certain events had a different outcome.
If we want to delve back in time to a key event that has pathed the way to the rise of European civilizations as we know them, few events in history could have had a bigger impact on that than the battle of Thermopylae.
This website will aim to show you the context and events leading up to the battle, and how it allowed the Greek world to continue to survive and pass on the cultural influences that still survive to this day.

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Context

Already by the start of the 5th century, the neighboring Persian Achaemenid Empire was experiencing an expansion into Europe.
King Darius I, the ruler of this vast Empire, had already subjugated Thrace and Macedonia. He had his sights set on the rest of the Greek world.
It is important to remember that at this point in time, Greece was not a unified nation. In fact, it was a vassal of indeopendant city states that shared a similar culture.
Darius I was keen to incorporate these states under his rule. In 491 BC, he sent an envoy to the Greek city states demanding that they submit to his rule.
The Greeks refused, and Darius prepared an invasion force to take the Greek states the following year.

In 490 BC, King Darius I sent a fleet of 600 ships and 25,000 men to attack Cyclades and Euboea, before meeting a combined Greek force led by Athens at the battle of Marathon.
This resulted in a decisive victory for the combined Greek fleet, halting Persian expansion into Greece. However, this would not be the end of the conflict.
In 486 BC, King Darius I died, replaced by King Xerxes I. He planned to take revenge on the Greek states by ammassing the largest invasive force ever seen at the time.
This was to be the biggest threat to Greek independence yet, and would again required a collaborative effort between all states to fend off this bigger invasion.

A greek spy notified officials within the key city of Sparta of the approaching Persian army, and whilst a plan was drawn up with other city states to send a force of 10,000 hoplites to fend off
the force at the Tempe Valley near Mt. Olympos, the festival of the Carneia made officials reluctant to go to war, as this was a celebration where military action was prohibited by Spartan Law.
The Olympic Games, held around the same time, meant other city states were reluctant to fight for a similar reason.

King Leonidas I of Sparta, could see the imminent threat to his city, and consulted with the ephors to negotiate sending a small task force to hold off the invasion.
They agreed on sending a 300-strong unit of the Spartan Royal Guard (Known as the Hippeis) with Leonidas. The goal, then, was to gather as many other greek soldiers along the way to defend a small pass on the east coast of Greece. This pass was known as The Hot Gates, or Thermopylae. In addition to the land defence, a naval blockade by the Athenian Navy was set up to prevent the Persian navy from out-flanking the Allied Greeks at Thermopylae. It was decided that the blockade would strong hold at Artemisium.

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Belligerents

The Allied Greeks

The combined Greek force is estimated to have numbered at around 7000 troops.
This mix of troops consited of Thebans, Thespians, Phocians, Arcadians, Mantineans, Tegeans, Corinthians, Mycenaeans and Phlians.
This combined force was entirely led under the command of King Leonidas I.

A typical hoplite soldier was laiden in bronze armour. This, across most Greek contingents, consisted of a bronze helmet, breastplate, greaves and a bronze covered wooden shield known as a Hoplon, from which the term Hoplite is derived. In the case of the Spartans, it is thought that they would wear a crimson red tunic, as well as a crested Corinthian helmet. A long, ash spear was the weapon of choice, followed by the Spartan Xiphos (a type of short sword). In a tight, phalanx formation, the hoplite soldier was a formidable fighter. Arguably the best type of soldier of its day. Each soldier's shield was protecting the solider next to him. The spears in formation provided a lethal wall aheasd of the front line. It was crucial to be diciplined in this formation, as each soldier was depending on the other to keep tightly packed next to one another to prevent gaps appearing in the line.

The Persian Army

The Persian army has had many varying estimates depending on different sources. However, modern day scholars estimate that the Persian army numbered anywhere between 12,000-300,000 strong. Xerxes' army had an even wider variety of warriors from across his empire, including: Persians, Parthians, Bactrians, Zarangians, Scythians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptions, Lydians and Ethiopians.

The general term for the Persian army was 'Spada'. This consisted of infantry, cavalry (both horse and camel ridden), charioteers and archers. The Spada was organised in a decimal fashion. 10 men made up a company (dathapati), 10 companies made up a battalion (thatapati), 10 battalions made up a division (hazarapati) and 10 divisions made up a corps (baivarapati). A typical infantry man carried a wooden spear and a short sword, as well as a wooden shield. An archer would carry a bow and a quiver full of arrows made of reed and bronze/iron heads. Overall, however, in terms of armour, the average Persian soldier was under-equipped to deal with a an opposing phalanx army. Usually, only cloth clothing was used. Some may have worn a leather cuirass over this. Depending on whether some soldiers originated from, some infantrymen preferred to use a battle axe as opposed to a spear.

The Immortals, the Persian Elite Soldiers, were an army consisting of, at any one time, 10,000 men. They were better equipped as well. They used sturdier wicker shields lined in leather, wore a metal plated corset as well as his standard tunic. A soldier would have carried a short spear, a short sword or dagger, and a bow and quiver full of arrows. A soft cap was worn that could cover their faces quickly when marching through a desert.

Day 1

The Pass at Thermopylae was an great strategic positionf for the allied Greek army to hold their defense. To their left, steep mountains that ran down to the pass, and to the right was the Agean Sea. The hoplite phalanx, a tight formation used by the Greeks, meant that in the narrow confines of Thermopylae, their inferior numbers mattered less as they could comfortably block the pass. A wall was built to block a route around the defensive line to the Greek camp, and a band of Phocians were dispatched to defend an old goat path that lead form the Greek camp all the way to the Persian camp.

The Persian emcampment had waiting for days prior before making their advance, expecting the Greeks to flee at the sight of the vast combined Persian force. On the first day of the battle, after Xerxes grew impatient at waiting for the Greeks to retreat, he ordered his archers to fire a barrage of arrows at the Greek line. This was ineffective. Then, he ordered an assault on the Greek position with around 10,000 men to attempt to break their lines. The phalanx proved itself here, and in the tight-shield formation, it successfully held off their advance. Greek units were rotated in and out of battle to prevent fatigue, showing they had plenty of men to hold the pass.

King Xerxes then ordered in his elite infanty, known as the Immortals. This was a unit consisting of 10,000 men at any one time, and got their name due to the fact that if any soldier fell, he was swiftly replaced. The Immortals attacked, but had no more success than the previous wave. The Greeks successfully held off the Immortals with feigning retreats before quickly reorganising back into phalanx formation.

Day 2

On day two, Xerxes sent in another vast assault again, hoping that by now the Greeks would be exhausted from the full day of fighting from the previous day. They had made no progress on the previous day. The Greeks successfully held off wave after wave of Persian charge utilising the same tactics. It looked as though the Greeks would be able to keep this up for weeks if necessary. However, a local shepherd from Thrachis was set to tip to balance in the Persians' favour. This man was Ephialtes, son of Eurydemos, and motivated by desire of wealth through Persian bribes, he went to the Persian camp to inform Xerxes and his commanders of the goat path that led to the Greek camp.

On the evening of day 2, Xerxes ordered one of his commanders, Hydarnes, to take a force of 20,000 with him and follow Ephialtes through the goat path. The path led from the east of the Persian camp along the edge of Mt. Anopaea, all the way behind the cliffs that flanked the pass at Thermopylae. The Persians, with the help of Ephialtes, saw that the path branches at on point, where one path lead to Phocis and the other to the Malian Gulf. They were sure that they could encircle the Greek army by the following day. They advanced through the night.

Day 3

At dawn, the Phocians guarding the goat path became aware of the approaching Persian army and hastily armed themselves. Both sides did not expect to come across each other. At first, Hydarnes hesitated to advance much further, fearing that the defending Greeks were Spartan. Ephialtes reassured him that they were not, and they pressed on. The Phocians, assuming themselves to be the target of the advancing army, withdrew to a higher position on a nearby hill to make a defensive stand. The Persians, seeing the gap in the pass, merely fired a volley of arrows at the defenders and carried on towards the allied Greek camp. A runner alerted the Spartans command that the Phocians had not held the path, and King Leonidas summoned a war council immediately to discuss their next move. Many of the Greeks argued for an immediate withdrawal, as their position was now compromised and indefensible. Leonidas however, insisted the he and his fellow Spartans would stay and cover any Greeks that wished to retreat. They would hold the line no matter the cost. Most took Leonidas up on this offer, fearing for their own lives and for the cities from which they came. However, a contingent of 700 Thespians, led by their general Demophilus, and a smaller group of 400 Thebans, chose to stand with the Spartans and fight to the end.

At dawn, Xerxes made libations before ordering an assault on the Greek front lines. This wave consisted of 10,000 men, both light infantry and cavalry units. The Greeks broke rank and charged forward. When their spears broke, the went to their Xiphos (Greek short sword) and fought on even when their secondary weapons broke. In the struggle, two of Xerxes' own brothers were killed. Leonidas, too, fell in the battle to Persian archers. Both sides fought viciously to reclaim his body. When Xerxes ordered in his 'Immortals', the Greeks withdrew to a hill behind the wall they had built to hold a last-stand.
The Persian army began tearing down the wall, and Xerxes ordered the hill defenders to be completely surrounded. He ordered his archers to fire until all Greeks were killed. The Persian army then advanced on, as the pass at Thermopylae was now cleared of defenders.

Aftermath

In the direct aftermath of the battle, the Persian army could now carry on its advance into the rest of Greece and rendered the Athenian naval blockade of Artemisium irrelevant. Furthermore, the resulting battle of Artemisium resulted in a tactical stalemate, and forced the Greek navy to withdraw to the island of Salamis. Following Thermopylae, the Persians proceeded to sack Plataea, Thespiae and any Boeotian cities that would not submit to Persian rule. Athens was evacuated and the Persian Army proceeded to sack Athens as well, which was an event that was known as the Achaemenid destruction of Athens. A Greek allied army began a defense of the Isthmus of Corinth, and demolished a single track to it and constructed a large wall, similar to what was done at Thermopylae. As with Thermopylae, a naval blockade was planned to hold off any flanking from the Persian Navy. The Athenian general Themistocles, persuaded the Allied Greeks that a decisive naval victory was needed at the site of the blockade. Luring the Persian Navy into the Straits of Salamis, the Greek Fleet was able to destroy much of the enemy fleet in what became known as the Battle of Salamis.

Xerxes ordered a general retreat back into Asia, fearing further destruction from the Greeks, but ordered that an invasive force return the following year to attemptto complete the Hellenic conquest. After a series of failed political negotiations, the two opposing forces met at Plataea, and initiated the battle of Plataea, in which the Allied Greeks boasted the biggest hoplite army ever assembled. This battle resulted in a decisive Greek victory and ending the Persian threat to the Greeks.

Cultural Influence

In the Ancient Greek world, the battle of Thermopylae served as a morale lesson to its people. One where duty to one's strongly held beliefs and values, even in the face of death, are worth fighting and paying the ultimate price for. Today in the contemporary world, the same message echoes through time. A smaller, free people standing up to a much greater foe in uncertain odds and uncertain outcomes inspires many to this day.

Several monuments have been built to celebrate the heroic deeds of the Soldiers at Thermopylae. The most famous is the statue of Leonidas, the Leonidas Monument by Vassos Felireas. Depicted under the statue of the Spartan King, is the phrase "Molon Labe" - meaning "Come and take them". This phrase will be explained further below. There is also the Thespian Monument, commissioned and constructed in 1997 by the Greek Government, to recognise the valour of the 700 Thespians who stayed behind with the Spartans. It is a beautiful marble structure featuring a bronze statue of the Greek God Eros, who was widely worshiped in amongst the Ancient Thespians. Underneath the statue, the there is a sign that reads "In memory of the seven hundred Thespians".

Finally, there is the Epitaph of Simonides. The original epigram, that was carved in stone on a burial ground for the Spartan 300, has not survived. This mound also happens to be the same hill on which the last Greeks put up their last stand again the Persians. However, in 1955 a new stone was placed on the hill, and reads a text written by Herodotus:

"O stranger, tell the Lacedaemonians
that we lie here, obedient to their words."

There have been many interpretations of this saying through the centuries. Miss-translations and different interpretations have led to words being swapped out for others, such as "words" for "laws", or "Lacedaemonians" for "Spartans". This is particularly true when the phrase has been translated in to English.

There are many legends surrounding the Greek side of the battle of Thermopylae, mainly due to the very few accounts we have from the time of battle. The best sources we have, include the likes of Herodotus, who wrote his history on the battle some 50+ years after it took place. Included in Herodotus' Histories, are some very famous phrases that have influenced other soldiers, athletes and media alike. Most famous of all, is how King Leonidas is said to have responded to a Persian envoy, who requested that the Spartans and there allies lay down their arms, lest they wished to be attacked by the Persians. Leonidas is said to have responded plainly with "Molon Labe", or "Come and take them" translated in English. Another recitement by Herodotus, suggests that when Persian scouts approached the Greek camp, the Spartans could be seen exercising, laughing and combing their long hair. The scouts were invited right up to the camp and informed that this was how Spartans prepared for war. This was confirmed to Xerxes by exiled Spartan King Demaratus, who informed Xerxes that this was common behaviour of Spartans who knew that they were about to put their lives at risk. Finally, another famous phrase from the histories. Herodotus writes that when the Spartan soldier Dienekes, was informed that the arrows from Persian archers would be so numerous that they would "block out the sun", he calmly replied
"So much the better...then we shall fight our battle in the shade."

In the modern day, there have been many books, documentaries, websites and films made about the battle at Thermopylae. Such films as 'The 300 Spartans' in 1962, the 1998 Comic book "300" by Frank Miller, which was also later adapted in to a popular film in 2006 starring Gerald Butler as King Leonidas. Translated literature of Herodotus' Histories can be found widely available as books or online literature. The battle has more recently made an appearance in the video game world as well. Assassin's Creed: Odyssey, made by Ubisoft, features the battle at the start of the game, mixing fiction into the story for the narrative of the game. The game's protagonist is even the grand-child of Leonidas. The battle of Thermopylae is often referenced in tv shows, films, games and more as an "Against-all-odds" message. Again, this can be directly attributed to Herodotus and his Histories. A deep appreciation of Spartan ideals and customs is defined today as 'Laconism' - References to this can be traced back to the Renaissance period, and today is often as simple as referencing the word "Spartan" as a sports team name or taking inspiration from the heroism of the battle. Symbolism of the Spartan 'Lambda' shield and Corinthian helmet is often used in conjunction with the term Spartan.

Today, the battlefield of Thermopylae is unassuming. You would never know what happened here. The coastline has receded back, and a modern highwat runs along where the coastline may have been. Tree covered mountains still stand tall over Thermopylae, and my hope is, that with the help of this website, the modern generation may know a little bit more than they did before about what happened here.